Francesco Cavalli 

Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676) was a powerful figure in the development of early opera. Born in Crema, Italy, he studied under the renowned composer Claudio Monteverdi at St Mark's Basilica in Venice. Cavalli's career included work as a singer and organist, as a composer of church music, and finally as a prominent composer for the Venetian opera scene.

His works express both the earlier aesthetics of early 17th century baroque opera, which sought to reconstruct ancient Greek tragedies with their emphasis on text and expression, and later, lyrical melodies and instrumental music, combining elements of traditional vocal forms with innovative orchestration. 

Cavalli's music played a significant role in shaping the Baroque opera style, influencing future generations of composers. Despite his success during his lifetime, he fell into relative obscurity after his death, but has since been recognized as a pivotal figure in the history of opera, with a growing revival of interest in his works in contemporary performances.

Cavalli collaborated with librettist Giovanni Faustini for ten of his operas (the tenth of which, Elena, was completed by Nicolo Minato after Faustini’s death). The artistic partnership was clearly a deep and fruitful one. 

Giovanni Faustini 

Giovanni Faustini (c. 1600–1651) was an Italian librettist and playwright, best known for his contributions to the early development of opera. Born in Venice, he wrote fourteen opera libretti in the mid-17th century, most for operas with his main collaborator, Francesco Cavalli. Virtually nothing is known about his personal life.  

La Doriclea 

La Doriclea was one of Faustini’s favorite operas, but was beset by challenges early on. Its premiere at the Venice Carnival in 1645 was two years later than the composer-librettist team initially wished. Indeed, as is evident by Faustini’s fiery declaration in the preface to the opera Egisto, he was forced to postpone Doriclea and substitute l’Egisto at short notice. The love scene in act 3 between Doriclea/Cyrus and Eurinda was also censored, probably for its explicitness. When the opera was finally performed, it was only open for one night before closing. Faustini’s brother Marco attempted to revive La Doriclea in 1666 after Giovanni’s death, with no success. But by that time, the musical style had changed, and La Doriclea was considered old-fashioned. Composer Pietro Andrea Ziani was commissioned to update the music (in a version now lost), but again due to unknown complications, the performance of Doriclea was substituted by another opera at the last minute. In the 18th century, Faustini’s libretto likely became the basis for Antonio Vivaldi’s lost version of La Doriclea, which was performed in 1716 and revived several times in Venice, Mantua and Prague. 

Faustini was inspired by historical biographies from Classical texts and mythology, yet the character of Doriclea does not appear in any literary or historical texts, and may have been an invention of Faustini’s own. The kings Artabanus and Tigranes are real figures from ancient history, yet Faustini’s story is a new one. The invented characters’ names contain etymological meanings from Greek, speaking to their essences and archetypes. 

Doriclea is the first opera on the Venetian stage to represent the historical and mythological figure of the Amazon, the warrior woman who transcends gender and social expectations and roles, and perhaps to audiences of the time would have been reminiscent of Monteverdi’s stirring depiction of Clorinda from Torquato Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata. 

At the core of the story is the Amazon warrior Doriclea, whose gender and sexuality are ambiguous. Though Doriclea presents the same way throughout the story, different characters perceive the warrior to embody different genders. What is also intrinsic is the attraction between Doriclea and princess Eurinda. Conceived through “eye darts”, their love transcends the body yet is also  deeply connected to it. 

The story may be interpreted in many ways, but the opera’s intrinsic transgressiveness and taboo elements are strong regardless of the angle of viewer. 

Queerness and the Cavalli / Faustini operas

Although elements of gender diversity and transformation, non-heteronormative (taboo) romance, and unveiling occur throughout the history of theatre and opera in European contexts, the presence of these themes in Cavalli’s operas, especially those set to Faustini’s texts, is especially marked. At least four of the Cavalli/Faustini operas contain elements which would be considered today “queer”,  or LGBTQ+. 

Various disguises are given, in keeping with the operas’ themes, to hide these queer elements. In La Doriclea, which was originally written for Carnival season (in which norms and hierarchies were traditionally reversed, much like the ancient Roman festival Saturnalia), an out-of-character aside excuses a sapphic love scene so vivid that it was originally censored. Yet it struck me that in order for the plots of many of these operas to work at all, the transgressive/queer attraction had to already be present.

In the case of La Doriclea, Eurinda is immediately attracted to Doriclea’s eyes via the trope of “eye-darts”, love at first sight, an instantaneous glance that kindles eros. This indicates that Eurinda is attracted to Doriclea’s essence, and that the attraction has a spiritual as well as innate sensual nature. Throughout the action, multiple characters are impressed with Doriclea/Cyrus’s “virtuous” bearing, which does not change once their identity is revealed. And even after Doriclea is unmasked, both Doriclea and Eurinda still admit that their attraction remains. 

Cavalli’s opera Eritrea focuses on another Amazon, a warrior whose gender is similarly unusual or mutable in the context of the opera, and crosses uncharted territory outside of heteronormative gender roles.  In La Calisto, the main action revolves around a nymph who is seduced by the god Jove (Jupiter) in the form of the goddess Diana. The seduction explicitly only works because Calisto is already attracted to Diana, and continues to believe it is the goddess who is her lover. Similarly, in Cavalli/Faustini’s Elena, the warrior and king Menelaus spends the majority of the opera presenting as a woman, during which time Helen of Troy (the most beautiful woman in the world) falls in love with them. 

Virtually nothing is known about Giovanni Faustini’s (romantic and gender) life is known. Yet it is clearly these topics had some pull on both composer and librettist, for they kept returning to them. Whether the topics simply sold well at the box office (signaling a fascination in the public with stories that upended the status quo, or indeed different norms than we imagine today when thinking about historical times) or whether they were personally appealing and satisfying to the creators is unknown.

Although the terms which we use today are new, the phenomenon of human attraction, desires, and gender expressions operating in a vast range of realities is as ancient as life itself. We have always been here, and it is at moments like this that you can catch a glimpse of us even in historical works.

Duben collection connection - Court of Queen Christina 

Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689), who ruled from 1632 to 1654, is known today as a queer and/or sapphic icon. Christina defied both gender norms and class expectations in many ways, and ruled over a court that grew to represent a bastion of open discussion, arts and philosophy. Like the character Doriclea, s/he famously dressed in masculine attire and androgynous presentation, and rejected the conventional roles assigned to women at the time. Christina had several women intimates and lovers, and chose not to marry, famously rejecting potential suitors and eventually relinquishing the throne entirely.

Isabella Shaw

Synopsis: 

Act 1

The action opens with a battle between the kingdoms (in the original, of Armenia and Parthia), on the banks of a river. Doriclea, an Amazon warrior and spouse of king Tigranes, has been wounded in battle after striking Emperor Artebanus. She begs Tigranes to kill her rather than let her become a prisoner of war. Tigranes resists. A soldier, Oronte, warns the pair of the enemy’s approach and urges them to flee. Tigranes eventually gives in and stabs Doriclea, and flees. A captain of Artebanus’ army, Surena, finds Doriclea and, not knowing Doriclea’s identity, brings them to the enemy camp. 

The scene changes to the Emperor Artebanus’s camp. Here, Artebanus has a private exchange with their only true confidante, the doctor Clitodoro. Artebanus marvels at the bravery of the unknown warrior (Doriclea) who wounded them.

Next, Princess Eurinda, Artebanus’ sister, is introduced. She is engaged to Farnace, originally an Iberian prince (and spy for Tigranes). She expresses her worry about Farnace and Artebanus, hearing of the warrior who fought so fiercely against them. She is pleased that Farnace is not jealous.

Doriclea is brought in and given to Eurinda’s care for a moment. Doriclea insults Artebanus and the empire, provoking Eurinda to physically attack. Farnace enters and splits up the fight. Farnace recognizes Doriclea but introduces him as Cyrus. Eurinda is struck by Dori/Cyrus’s beauty, and departs. Farnace tells Doriclea that Tigranes is alive but heading for a trap. Farnace has been fighting with Artebanus for Eurinda’s sake; now he decides to switch sides, returning to his childhood friend Tigranes. Doriclea asks for death again. Instead, Farnace leaves Doriclea/Cyrus in the care of Surena, who tends their wounds. 

Act 2

Artebanus muses on Dori/Cyrus’s bravery, expressing love for him and a wish to elevate him above a prisoner. Meanwhile, Tigranes is alone, lost in the borderlands. Farnace finds him, and the two rejoice in their special bond. Farnace reveals that Doriclea is alive. They plan to take a safe route to Artebanus’ camp to rescue Doriclea. 

Back at Artebanus’s court, Artebanus and Eurinda greet Dori/Cyrus with honor. Artebanus is attracted by Cyrus’s bravery and an intangible virtuous quality. Eurinda is overcome with Cyrus’s beauty and feels “eye darts” of attraction and love hit their mark in her heart. Artebanus considers Cyrus a potential suitor for Eurinda, and offers to give him parts of the kingdom, which Cyrus/Dori declines. Doriclea offers himself as a knight to Eurinda. 

Melloe, Eurinda’s lady-in-waiting, advises her to return to Farnace, but she is too far gone in love with Cyrus. Melloe privately wishes also to experience love. 

Act 3

Doriclea attempts to flee the city unnoticed. She wishes for Tigranes’ safety, and thinks of Eurinda. Eventually she collapses and falls asleep. She is found and returned to the court. 

Tigranes and Farnace meanwhile cross the border to Artebanus’ kingdom, and Tigranes disguises himself. 

Next, in the royal bedchamber, Doriclea and Eurinda seduce each other. They are interrupted by Artebanus, who curses Eurinda for acting unchaste. Tigranes enters and, jealous, attacks Artebanus. Doriclea defends Artebanus but then recognizes Tigranes. Tigranes says Doriclea’s name and unmasks him, and curses Doriclea for unfaithfulness. Artebanus has soldiers take Tigranes away. Doriclea laments Tigranes’ misunderstanding her actions (she was released from her former bond when Tigranes struck her with the sword). Eurinda, believing herself to be abandoned by Cyrus, returns to Farnace, who responds with empathy. 

Artebanus, considering executing all the wrongdoers and thinking about the future of their family line, questions what the ancestors and the gods would wish. Melloe, the lady-in-waiting, sick of war, begs the river to deliver peace. Her outburst is answered. Artebanus realizes that the gods demand mercy, and forgives Tigranes, Doriclea, and Eurinda. Artebanus grants Tigranes’ kingdom back and offers eternal protections, and Tigranes and Doriclea forgive each other. Eurinda says that she truly loved Cyrus. Doriclea admits that whether as Cyrus or Doriclea, she is still attracted to Eurinda, leaving the future open to our imaginations.